Adult Learning Theories: Everything You Need to Know

Adult learning theories provide research-backed frameworks that help educators understand how adults process and retain information. These theories inform teaching methods across various subjects, skills, and learning environments – from academic settings to workplace training. By understanding how adults learn differently than children, educators can design more effective and engaging learning experiences.

In this article, we will define what adult education is, explain the challenges of adult learning, review the key adult learning theories and principles, and share some tried-and-true recommendations on how to teach adult learners effectively.

What Is Adult Learning? 

Adult learning is when people over 25 learn new things, such as skills, information, or concepts. It’s different from the way children learn because adults bring their life experiences to the learning process.

Adult learning vs. child learning 

Children’s education focuses on basic skills and critical thinking. However, adults learn differently because they:

• Have more life experiences to draw from.
• Know what they want to learn.
• Choose to study based on their interests, needs, and learning styles.

Here are the key differences in the learning process:

• Adult learners usually want to study and can guide their own progress. They understand why the material matters and which skills they need. This motivates them to improve themselves. Children, on the other hand, often lack drive and independence when they’re not interested in the topic.

Adults learn best when they can work independently, direct their own learning, and make their own decisions. Instead of having a teacher in charge, adult learners benefit from mentors, coaches, and subject matter experts. These guides support learning through collaboration, hands-on activities, and real-world applications.

These fundamental differences between adult and child learning have led researchers and educators to develop specialized frameworks for understanding how adults learn most effectively.

What are Adult Learning Theories?

Adult learning theories are science-backed frameworks that explain how adults learn, in contrast to how children learn. The theories help educators create more effective training strategies.

While there are several adult learning theories today (like andragogy, transformational learning, and experiential learning), they all aim to help educators better understand how to facilitate adult learning processes and design a company training program that achieves better outcomes.

The educator Malcolm Knowles popularized the concept of adult learning theory in education or andragogy in the 1980s.

Known in the U.S. as ‘The Father of Adult Learning Theory,’ Knowles proposed an alternative view on how to best teach adults in his 1973 work, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species. 

5 Principles of Knowles’ Adult Learning Theory

Knowles organized his concept of adult learning around 5 principles, assumptions, or pillars that distinguished andragogy from pedagogy. These have remained the major principles of adult learning theory ever since.

Adult Learning Theories Comparison Chart

Before we dive deeper into understanding the specifics of what each theory states and its main principles, here’s a comparison chart of adult learning theories.

Now, let’s examine each theory in greater detail: 

Transformational (transformative) Learning

Year: 1978

Author: Jack Mezirow

Definition 

This learning theory aims to help adults, especially young and middle-aged adult learners, question their preconceived notions and self-concept and develop a more nuanced version of that person’s worldview.

Students deeply reflect on their assumptions and beliefs, analyze their thought processes, and question their perspectives as part of the transformative learning process.

How it works

Here are some practical ways to create classroom environments that are conducive to life-changing learning for adults:

• Expose students to new concepts and perspectives. Use different literature, guest lecturers, and experiential learning activities to challenge students’ beliefs.
• Encourage reflection. Students can examine their understanding and assumptions through journaling, talks, or reflective writing.
• Foster critical discourse. Encourage open discourse and debate in the classroom to help students understand complicated subjects from different perspectives.
• Use “disorienting dilemma” tasks. Fully engage learners in assignments that require them to study opposing views or interview diverse people to build empathy.

Important: As transformational learning suggests a lot of in-person communication, its implementation is a bit tricky for educators who actively participate in online learning for adult students.

Pros and cons of transformational learning

This method is best suited for: 

1. Personal change and growth mindset
2. Complex analytical processes
3. Situational evaluation and analysis

Experiential Learning

Year: 1984 

Author: David Kolb 

Definition 

This concept, as one of the adult learning theories, emphasizes a hands-on approach as the main source of gained knowledge.

How it works 

Here are Kolb’s four pillars of this adult learning method:

1. Active participation: Learning by doing
2. Reflection on practice: Thinking about what happened
3. Abstract conceptualization: Understanding what it means
4. Application: Using what was learned

They allow students to examine their past actions and draw conclusions about their strengths, shortcomings, and opportunities for growth. 

Internships, field excursions, laboratory experiments, and role-plays are just a few examples of the many forms that experiential methodology can take in a classroom. Curiosity, creativity, and a love of learning can flourish in classrooms that incorporate this adult education methodology into lesson plans.

Pros and cons of experiential learning

This method is best suited for:

1. Systematic thinking 
2. Process-oriented tasks 
3. Mechanical skills development

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Year: 1997

Author: D.R. Garrison 

Definition 

Garrison’s self-directed learning theory builds on educator Malcolm Knowles’ adult learning theory principles and encourages students to take charge of their education. This strategy fosters autonomy, supports motivation to learn, and cultivates a love for learning.

How it works 

Adults who engage in self-directed learning self-evaluate to identify their educational needs and then choose their own paths to realize them. They take control of every step: find necessary resources, plan learning activities, and evaluate their success. While selecting appropriate learning materials, they rely greatly on educational apps for adult learners and different web-based training solutions.

Pros and cons of SDL

This method is best suited for: 

1. Self-motivated learners 
2. Technology-based learning 
3. Teaching systems-based or process-based knowledge
4. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

Project-Based Learning (PBL)

Year: 1897

Author: John Dewey 

Definition 

Learning through real-world examples and practical challenges is a well-established adult education approach. Project-Based Learning (PBL) was introduced in 1897 by John Dewey, who called it “learning by doing.”

How it works 

The PBL method encourages students to apply their knowledge to solve real-life problems. It emphasizes student inquiry, discussion, and teamwork because the projects often combine issues from several sectors to foster analytical and problem-solving skills.

PBL requires learners to solicit feedback and continually review results. Active practice with varied skills like inquiry, problem-solving, teamwork, and communication enhances long-term learning retention.

Pros and cons of PBL

The method is best suited for: 

1. Long-term project management activities 
2. Process improvement 
3. Software and technology research and development

Action Learning

Year: 1982

Author: Reg Revans 

Definition 

The action-and-reflection-based strategy for solving problems known as “Action Learning” was first proposed by Reg Revans in 1982. The basic idea of this system is that adult education is best accomplished when used to solve problems – even specific urgent tasks.

How it works

Teams of adult learners work together to address an actual issue affecting a community or business. The process consists of 3 steps:

1. Recognizing the problem and making all necessary clarifications 
2. Reflecting on what can be done to solve the problem 
3. Taking action 

To ensure training achieves its intended outcomes, the group needs a mentor who can guide their discussions, considerations, and subsequent actions.

Action learning works particularly well for complex organizational challenges. It succeeds because it brings together diverse perspectives from the group. This approach also leverages collective skills and group intelligence to solve problems.

Pros and cons of the method

Best suited for: 

1. Learning needs assessment
2. Filling in gaps in organizational knowledge 
3. Team building

Behaviorism

Year: 1913

Author: John Watson

Definition 

This adult learning theory is based on psychology and leverages the “reward and punishment” approach to encourage or discourage certain behaviors. In corporate training, it can take the form of awarding the best performers.

How it works 

Behavioral learning theory emphasizes the role of external stimuli and reinforcement in shaping student behavior. This strategy works regardless of the motivational source of the behavior, whether it’s curiosity, continuous learning, or taking initiative.

Here’s a breakdown of how it works:

1. Stimulus-response framework. Teachers present information or prompts (stimuli) that elicit specific responses from students. Students are considered passive participants, absorbing the information provided.

2. The role of positive reinforcement:

• Positive reinforcement is essential for encouraging and maintaining desired behaviors. For example, giving gamified points or financial bonuses for good test scores motivates students to aim for high performance.
• Without consistent reinforcement, the connection between behavior and reward weakens, leading to a drop in the desired behavior.

3. Repetition for retention. Repeating the same stimuli-response pattern helps embed the desired behavior. Over time, students associate specific actions with positive outcomes, making the behavior habitual.

4. Motivation through reinforcement:

• Positive reinforcement, such as praise or tangible rewards, motivates students to repeat successful behaviors.
• Negative reinforcement (absence of reward or acknowledgment) can discourage effort because students may perceive their actions as inconsequential.

Pros and cons of behavioral learning

This method is best suited for: 

1. Basic skill training that requires repetition and clear feedback, as in the initial stages of learning a new task.
2. Highly structured environments where clear rules and consequences are necessary, as in compliance training.
3. Behavioral techniques are often used in behavior modification programs aimed at changing specific behaviors, which can be relevant in adult education settings focused on health, safety, or compliance training.

Constructivism

Year: The beginning of the 20th century 

Authors: Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget 

Definition 

The constructivist theory in education, also known as constructivism, is one of the oldest and most prominent adult learning theories and principles.

At its core, the theory asserts that individuals actively build knowledge through life experiences and social interactions while drawing on their prior knowledge.

The two branches of the theory are cognitive constructivism associated with Jean Piaget and social constructivism developed by Lev Vygotsky.

How it works

Groups of adult learners work together to solve tasks using their life experiences and problem-solving skills. More experienced team members or expert facilitators step in to help when adult learning challenges occur.

This approach encourages active participation in learning, giving trainees enough freedom to experiment while also motivating peer-to-peer interaction and knowledge transfer. Some examples of using this adult learning framework in an organization include debates, brainstorming sessions, and role-playing activities.

Pros and cons of the social constructivism theory

This method is best suited for: 

1. Developing social skills
2. Training employees in leadership positions
3. Improving job performance through motivation
4. Team building

Cognitivism

Year: 1960’s

Author: Jean Piaget

Definition

The cognitive learning theory concentrates on how a person’s mind receives, organizes, saves, and retrieves information.

The cognitive theory compares the human brain to a computer, processing information systematically. This approach examines mental processes rather than just observable behaviors to understand how learning occurs.

How it works

In the workplace, cognitive learning happens through three key stages:

Accommodation – Adapting existing methods

• Example: Sales reps updating their pitches with new digital tools
• Employees modifying current practices to incorporate new approaches

Assimilation – Connecting new with known

• Example: Accountants relating new software to familiar principles
• Workers integrating new information with established expertise

Equilibration – Finding the right balance

• Example: Managers blending remote and in-person leadership techniques
• Employees combining proven methods with new practices

Pros and cons of social learning

This method is best suited for: 

Teaching complex mental processes that require systematic information processing, such as strategic planning, research methodology, or advanced mathematics.

Gagné’s Theory of Instruction

Year: 1965

Author: Robert Gagné

Definition

Gagné’s theory bridges behaviorism and cognitivism by providing a systematic classification (taxonomy) of learning outcomes – essentially different types of learning – and matching each with specific instructional approaches.

This framework provides a systematic approach to learning and is made up of three components:

1. A Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes

• Cognitive Domain: Cognitive Strategies, Intellectual Skills, Verbal Information
• Psychomotor Domain: Motor Skills
• Affective Domain: Attitudes

2. Conditions of Learning

• Conditions for Learning Verbal Information
• Conditions for Learning Intellectual Skills
• Conditions for Learning Cognitive Strategies
• Conditions for Learning Attitudes
• Conditions for Learning Motor Skills

3. Nine Events of Instruction

• Gaining attention
• Informing learners of objectives
• Stimulating recall of prior learning
• Presenting stimulus
• Providing learning guidance
• Eliciting job performance
• Providing feedback
• Assessing performance
• Enhancing retention and transfer

How it works

Gagné believed the instructor should deliberately arrange these nine events of instruction to support the learning process and achieve specific performance outcomes.

Pros and cons of Gagné’s theory

This method is best suited for:

1. Online learning course development
2. Technical and procedural skill development
3. Complex task analysis and instruction

Discovery Learning

Year: 1960s

Author: Jerome Bruner

Definition

Discovery learning is an inquiry-based learning theory that encourages learners to build on experiences and knowledge to discover facts and relationships and learn new truths.

How it works

The process typically follows these steps:

1. Exploration – Learners interact with their environment by exploring and manipulating objects, wrestling with questions, and conducting experiments.
2. Concept formation – Through these experiences, learners discover patterns and meaning.
3. Application – Learners apply their newly discovered knowledge to new situations.

This might involve:

• Problem-based scenarios where learners must find solutions independently
• Case studies that require investigation and analysis
• Simulations that allow for experimentation
• Guided activities that encourage exploration and hypothesis testing

Pros and cons of discovery learning

This method is best suited for:

1. Complex scenarios for solving problems
2. STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) fields

Social Learning

Year: 1977

Author: Albert Bandura 

Definition 

This adult education theory highlights the value of social interactions for learning and development. In this paradigm, learning occurs informally in social groups through observation, modeling, and imitation.

Unlike most other adult training techniques, it doesn’t necessarily involve planning, goal-setting, and facilitation, although adjustments can be made to give this learning method more purpose.

How it works 

Social learning can happen spontaneously during social interactions in an academic, professional, corporate, or any other type of setting. Think of playing soccer with experienced teammates – you learn the basic rules, watch how they play, copy their moves, and improve your own game.

However, this approach may render exact outcomes difficult to measure. To avoid that, social learning can be introduced as a component of a broader and more structured educational program, offline or online, and/or combined with the collaborative learning approach. For example, learning management systems (LMSs) offer social learning as a feature that makes self-directed learning more engaging.

Pros and cons of social learning

This method is best suited for: 

1. Teams and companies with an informal culture 
2. Communication skills development 
3. Fostering self-motivation and continuous learning

Humanism

Year: 1983

Author: Carl Rogers

Definition

Humanistic learning theory emphasizes personal growth, self-direction, and the innate desire to learn. This theory views learning as a form of self-actualization, where individuals strive to reach their full potential. It places the learner’s personal freedom, choice, and responsibility at the center of learning processes.

How it works

The humanistic approach operates on several key principles:

1. Self-directed learning – Learners take primary responsibility for their learning journey.
2. Personal growth – Focus on developing the whole person, not just specific skills.
3. Intrinsic motivation – Learning driven by personal desire rather than external rewards.
4. Facilitative teaching – Instructors act as guides rather than directors.
5. Safe learning environment – Creation of supportive spaces where learners feel comfortable taking risks.

In practice, this might involve:

• Setting personal learning objectives
• Choosing individual learning paths
• Self-evaluation of progress
• Group discussions focused on personal experiences
• Reflective journaling

Pros and cons of humanistic learning

This method is best suited for:

1. Personal development programs
2. Leadership training
3. Counseling and coaching
4. Creative fields
5. Professional development, where self-awareness is crucial

ARCS Model of Motivation

Year: 1979

Author: John Keller

Definition

The ARCS Model of Motivation is an approach to learning that focuses on four key components needed to motivate learners: Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction.

This systematic approach helps instructors create engaging learning experiences that maintain learner motivation throughout the educational process.

How it works

The adult learning model operates through four essential components:

1. Attention

• Capture learners’ interest.
• Stimulate curiosity.
• Maintain engagement through variety.

2. Relevance

• Connect content to learners’ life experiences.
• Match content with learners’ goals.
• Link learning to practical applications.

3. Confidence

• Set clear expectations.
• Provide opportunities for success.
• Allow learners to control their progress.

4. Satisfaction

• Give meaningful feedback.
• Provide opportunities to use new skills.
• Reward achievement appropriately.

Instructors use these components to design learning experiences that maintain motivation from start to finish. For example, they might use surprising facts to grab attention, real-world examples to show relevance, progressive challenges to overcome self-doubt, and immediate application opportunities to create satisfaction.

Pros and cons of the ARCS Model

This method is best suited for:

1. Online learning environments
2. Self-paced learning
3. Skills-based training, where motivation is crucial for success

Connectivism

Year: 2005

Authors: George Siemens and Stephen Downes

Definition

Connectivism holds that learning occurs by linking different pieces of information together and maintaining these connections to build knowledge.

Key features:

• Emphasizes the role of technology and networks in learning
• Learning can happen through various digital platforms (blogs, wikis, social media)
• Existing knowledge is constantly changing and evolving
• Learners must be able to identify patterns and make connections
• Focuses on knowledge creation rather than just consumption

How it works

Connectivism involves:

• Using digital tools and social networks
• Participating in online communities
• Curating and sharing digital resources
• Building personal learning networks
• Engaging with diverse information sources

Pros and cons of connectivism

This method is best suited for:

1. Professional development in tech fields
2. Online collaborative learning
3. Social media and digital marketing education

General Tips from Adult Learning Theories 

After exploring the various adult education theories, we can extract some key practical tips that apply to most training programs.

Whether you’re designing corporate training, academic courses, or career advancement programs, incorporating these tips can significantly improve learning outcomes.

Involve learners in planning their learning process

Include mature students in the early stages of the learning plan to give them more agency. Give them the freedom to decide what they want to learn, how fast they want to acquire new knowledge, and what kind of structure they want their lessons to follow. You can even allow them to pick training activities they enjoy.

Make it similar to solving real-world problems

Present lessons as challenges with real-world solutions. Give examples of problems or situations that call for research and analysis of the information presented.

Mature students tap into their hidden critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities through this method’s emphasis on active learning.

Encourage critical reflection

Stimulating adult learners to reflect on their experiences, draw conclusions, and analyze things from many angles is a great way to help them deepen their understanding and retain new knowledge. Reflection encourages students to make connections between new concepts and their prior knowledge and ideas.

Allow autonomy

In online/hybrid learning, allowing students to progress at their own pace while exploring topics of interest increases engagement and motivation. This autonomy aligns with how adults naturally learn.

Use storytelling and emotional connection

Adult learners, like children, connect deeply with stories. When students connect emotionally with learning materials and see their relevance, they engage more deeply and retain information better. The key is making content meaningful through accessible storytelling.

Here’s how to leverage this in adult learning methodologies:

• Use workplace case studies and anecdotes. 
• Highlight success stories from peers.
• Connect content to daily challenges.
• Help learners see themselves in the material.
• Show the direct impact on their learning objectives.

Stimulate with intrinsic rewards

Adults learn best when they’re motivated from within. Instead of starting with external rewards, focus on helping them see the personal value of learning. Show them how the knowledge will benefit their lives and careers.

Also, give them opportunities to practice and succeed. When adults find the learning process rewarding in and of itself, they stay more engaged and committed to learning goals.

The key is to tap into their natural desire to grow and improve, rather than forcing them to learn.

Final Thoughts

This comprehensive guide explored the major adult learning theories that have shaped modern education and training approaches. Each theory offers unique insights into how adults learn best – from the importance of self-direction and real-world application to the role of reflection and social interaction.

Key takeaways:

• Adult learners are different from children and require specialized approaches.
• Effective adult education incorporates autonomy, relevance, and practical application.
• Multiple theories can be combined to create effective degree programs.

Next steps:

1. Assess your learning needs and goals to determine which theories align best.
2. Experiment with different teaching methods or training programs.
3. Consider implementing a learning management system (e.g., iSpring Learn) to enhance and streamline your adult learning initiatives.
4. Stay current on adult learning case studies and emerging educational technologies.

Useful Resources

Check out other articles about adult education on our blog:

• The 11 Best HR Tools for Streamlining Your Workflow
• What eLearning Is and How It Benefits Businesses
• The 70:20:10 Learning Model: How to Enhance It with Technology
• 5 Types of Employee Training and How to Get Improved Results with eLearning
• LMS Benefits for Recruiters, HR, Sales, and Commercial Directors
• The Ultimate Guide to Lecture Capture
• How to Build a Learning Culture