Adult Learning Theories: Everything You Need to Know

Understanding adult learning is as much a trend these days as it is a necessity. But what exactly is adult education? And what makes learning as an adult challenging? Whether it’s driven by curiosity, workplace demands, or advancing one’s career path, several factors complicate the process. However, with the right approach and mindset, learning can be manageable and effective for adults.

In this article, we will define what adult learning is, explain how adults learn differently than children, review the key adult learning theories and principles, and share some tried-and-true recommendations on how to teach adult learners effectively.

What Is Adult Learning? 

Adult learning can be defined as the process of acquiring new concepts, new language, information, new skills, and abilities at a mature age, which is typically after 25 years of age. At its core, the concept, which emerged in the late 19th century, acknowledges that adults possess unique traits that have a major impact on how they learn and shape adult learning styles. After understanding the definition of adult learning, let’s take a closer look at how adults learn differently than children.

Adult Learning vs. Child Learning 

The abovementioned traits make adult learning theories very different from those for teaching children. Early childhood education programs usually focus on teaching children the basics and encouraging them to think critically. When compared to younger learners, mature learners have a plethora of past experiences — both life experiences and previous learning experiences — and information to draw on. Adults’ readiness to learn is based on their wants, needs, and hobbies, which makes their learning path naturally different from that of children. Here are the key differences:

• Adult learners are usually motivated and able to direct their own learning, while younger learners may lack independence and drive if they’re not interested. Adults are better at understanding why what they are learning is important and clearly understand their learning needs, which motivates them to actively seek out opportunities to grow and improve.
• When teaching adults, the entire setting changes in significant ways. Adult students learn best in a learning environment that allows them to be independent and exhibit self-directed learning, rather than in a typical classroom setting in which the teacher is in charge. The standard role of the teacher is replaced by mentors, coaches, facilitators, or subject matter experts who lead students through collaborative and hands-on learning. This is the understanding needed to teach adults effectively.

The following chart presents an overview of these differences between adult learners and young learners, arranged by the main aspects:

However, some things can be challenging for adult learners. A student’s emotional baggage, life and learning experience, and internal motivations can create issues that teachers have to resolve in very different ways. Making sense of the issues, such as overcoming a fear of failure and dealing with time constraints, is important for crafting any training program that works well and is interesting to adult learners. Later on, we will review these challenges in more detail. But first, let us define other important concepts: adult learning theory and andragogy theory.

What Is Adult Learning Theory?

The adult learning concept describes the general idea of how most adults learn and how this process differs from learning and development in children. But without a comprehensive, structured understanding and research, it has little practical value. And that’s where adult learning theory comes in. Adult learning theory ties together all the notions that the general concept of studying as adult learners offers, providing a scientifically based, formalized framework to explain the phenomenon, give it substance, and uncover its possible practical uses. When they apply adult learning theory that describes the core adult learning principles, educators can gain a better understanding of the specific ways to facilitate learning for adults, create training and professional development programs that are better suited for adult learners, and achieve better learning outcomes.

But why do we say “an” adult learning theory instead of “the”? The reason is that there are several such learning theories for adults today (more on that later). However, there is one that clearly stands out: andragogy. 

What Is Andragogy? 

Andragogy theory is often perceived as the ultimate adult learning theory because it was the first of its kind. Initially developed at the end of the 19th century, it was popularized by the American educator Malcolm Knowles in the late 1960s–early 1970s. The term itself derives from Greek and means “leading men (adults)” as opposed to pedagogy, which translates from Greek as “leading children.” 

For quite a while, andragogy had remained synonymous with the term “adult learning theory” due to its immense popularity and lack of competition. But after other prominent learning theories that were focused on adult learners began to emerge, andragogy has lost its dominant place and began to be regarded as just one of a number of adult learning theories. However, some still use the terms “andragogy” and “adult learning theory” interchangeably, which sometimes causes confusion. That is why you might come across different definitions when entering the “andragogy meaning” request in a search engine bar. For the sake of clarity, we’ll be using the term “andragogy” in this article as it stands now — as the name of one of the major adult learning theories and not the synonym of adult education as a whole. Thus, we will review Malcolm Knowles’ theory in more detail later on, along with other popular adult learning theories and principles.

But as mentioned earlier, even with more than one solid learning theory, this process still has its challenges that might not be easily overcome if not recognized. So, let’s take a closer look at some of the most common ones. 

Challenges for Adults in Learning 

Adults can experience learning challenges that are very different from those faced by children. Adult learners sometimes encounter obstacles that can hinder their path to learning, such as coping with time limitations or overcoming psychological barriers that stem from their prior learning experience or life experience. But what else is on the list, and what can organizations do to deal with these issues in order to teach adults effectively?

Focusing

Maintaining focus in the face of conflicting demands is especially difficult for adults in today’s fast-paced workplace, where training accounts for only around 5% of employees’ time on the job. It might be challenging for them to carve out time for simple training videos, let alone an entire training program, because of their packed schedules at work and at home. This issue is worsened by distractions like a busy family life, demanding children or pets, or an excessive reliance on smartphones. Therefore, it’s crucial for adults who want to learn to establish learning environments and develop learning practices that are conducive to minimizing distractions and maximizing participation.

Not seeing the big picture

Many adults may see training programs as being pointless if they don’t understand how it helps the business achieve its objectives and what the implication of this training program is in the overall context. To overcome this obstacle, organizations should emphasize the significance of training for both individual and corporate success by articulating the connection between individual professional development and overall company performance. Thus, motivating and engaging adult learners requires an appreciation of the bigger picture and how corporate training efforts fit in.

Not understanding the purpose

Employees might consider training irrelevant if they don’t know how it will benefit them personally or professionally. Adult students often approach learning with a “what’s in it for me” attitude, looking for specific ways that can advance their careers. So, it’s crucial that every training program caters to the specific requirements of adult learners by showing them how to apply what they’ve learned in real-world examples. Whether it’s the prospect of a promotion, a pay rise, securing a new role, or personal development, there should always be something to strive for during the educational process.

Imposter syndrome

In a nutshell, imposter syndrome can be defined as an inability to take pride in one’s accomplishments. When faced with this phenomenon, many adults experience feelings of inadequacy in their abilities and low self-confidence. This inevitably leads to fear of failure, because having a zeal for perfection is only good until it becomes a paralyzing trait. 

Organizations can help mature students with the imposter syndrome succeed by understanding the importance of attention, outlining their goals, creating a positive learning atmosphere, and offering engaging learning experiences.

To resolve all these issues effectively, it’s necessary to have a sophisticated understanding of the specific requirements and drivers of adult learners. It’s also crucial to understand which training methods are best suited to how many adults learn, and which teaching approaches can help them flourish. We reviewed the most popular learning systems and methodologies that target adult students and explain how each one can be used to facilitate adult learning with training techniques that are designed to deliver learning goals.

Adult Learning Theory Comparison Chart

Before we dive deeper into understanding the specifics of what each theory states and its main principles, here’s a comparison chart of the best adult learning theories, which we’ll examine in the article. Studying it carefully can help you grasp the general meaning of each methodology and select the best strategy from the different theories of adult learning for your own program design needs early on.

The Principal Adult Learning Theories

As frameworks for instructional design, adult learning theories shed light on the factors that encourage adults to pursue continuous learning. What are the practical consequences of the key theories of mature education? Let’s take a look at some of the most influential adult learning theories.

Andragogy

Year: 1968

Author: Malcolm Knowles

Definition 

A guiding principle for effective education in adults and probably the most well-known adult learning theory, andragogy highlights the distinctive qualities of adult learners, which impact their preferred methods of instruction and the effectiveness of educational materials.

To better understand the unique characteristics and requirements of mature students, Malcolm Knowles’ theory states there are five principles, or pillars, of andragogy. These have remained the major principles of adult learning as a whole ever since:

Knowles also stated seven essential outcomes of the andragogy learning model that shape the mature learners’ development:

The outcomes of andragogy stated by Knowles

How it works

Of course, it may not be easy to include all adult learning principles of andragogy in your adult learning decisions. Similarly, you shouldn’t expect to observe all possible outcomes. But as long as there is a positive result, progress is being made!

Pros and cons of andragogy

This method is best suited for: 

1. Self-motivated learners 
2. Structured formal learning with applied goals 
3. Specific problem solving 

Transformational (transformative) learning

Year: 1978

Author: Jack Mezirow

Definition 

The goal of this educational methodology is to help adults, especially young and middle-aged adults, question their preconceived notions and self-concept and develop a more nuanced version of that person’s worldview. Students reflect critically, solve problems, and self-evaluate as part of the transformative learning process.

How it works

Here are some practical ways to create classroom environments that are conducive to life-changing learning for adults:

• Expose students to new concepts and perspectives. Use different literature, guest lecturers, and experiential learning activities to challenge students’ beliefs.
• Encourage reflection. Allow students to examine their understanding and assumptions through journaling, talks, or reflective writing.
• Foster critical discourse. Encourage open discourse and debate in the classroom to help students understand complicated subjects from different perspectives.
• Utilize “disorienting dilemma” tasks. Fully engage learners in assignments that require them to study opposing views or interview diverse people to build empathy.

Important: As transformational learning suggests a lot of in-person communication, its implementation is a bit tricky for educators who actively participate in online learning for adult students.

Pros and cons of transformational learning

This method is best suited for: 

1. Personal change and growth mindset
2. Complex analytical processes
3. Situational evaluation and analysis 

Experiential learning

Year: 1984 

Author: David Kolb 

Definition 

Experiential learning, as one of the adult learning theories, emphasizes a practical, hands-on approach as the main source of gained knowledge.

How it works 

David Kolb asserts that active participation, reflection on practice, abstract conceptualization of the experience, and application of the new knowledge acquired from experience are the four pillars upon which experiential learning rests. They allow students to examine their past actions and draw conclusions about their strengths, shortcomings, and opportunities for growth. 

Internships, field excursions, laboratory experiments, and role-plays are just a few examples of the many forms that experiential learning can take in a classroom. Curiosity, inventiveness, and a love of learning can flourish in classrooms that incorporate experiential learning into lesson plans.

Pros and cons of experiential learning

This method is best suited for:

1. Systematic thinking 
2. Process-oriented tasks 
3. Mechanical skills development 

Self-directed learning (SDL)

Year: 1997

Author: D.R. Garrison 

Definition 

Garrison’s self-directed learning theory builds on educator Malcolm Knowles’ adult learning theory principles and encourages students to take charge of their education. This strategy fosters autonomy, supports motivation to learn, and cultivates a love for learning.

How it works 

Adults who engage in self-directed learning self-evaluate to identify their educational needs and then choose their own paths to realize them. They take control of every step: find necessary resources, plan learning activities, and evaluate their success. While selecting appropriate instructional materials, they rely greatly on learning apps for adult learners and different web-based training solutions.

Pros and cons of SDL

This method is best suited for: 

1. Self-motivated learners 
2. Technology-based learning 
3. Teaching systems-based or process-based knowledge
4. Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs)

Project based learning (PBL)

Year: 1897

Author: John Dewey 

Definition 

The idea of developing new skills needed through instruction based on real-world examples and challenges is not new. Project Based Learning (PBL) was introduced in 1897 by John Dewey, who called it “learning by doing.”

How it works 

The PBL method encourages students to apply their knowledge to solve real-life problems. It emphasizes student inquiry, discussion, and teamwork because the projects often combine issues from several sectors to foster analytical and problem-solving skills. PBL requires learners to solicit feedback and continually review results. This iterative process is believed to increase the possibility of long-term retention of any new skill and knowledge. It also requires the use of diverse skills, including inquiry, problem-solving, collaboration, and communication.

Pros and cons of PBL

The method is best suited for: 

1. Long-term project management activities 
2. Process improvement 
3. Software and technology research and development 

Action learning

Year: 1982

Author: Reg Revans 

Definition 

The action-and-reflection-based problem-solving strategy known as “Action Learning” was first proposed by Reg Revans in 1982. The basic idea of this system is that adult learning is best accomplished when used to solve problems, even those that are concrete and urgent.

How it works

Teams of learners work together to address an actual issue affecting a community or business. The process is arranged into 3 steps:

1. Recognizing the problem and making all necessary clarifications 
2. Reflecting on what can be done to solve the problem 
3. Taking action 

To ensure the effectiveness of the training process, the group needs a mentor who can guide their discussions, considerations, and subsequent actions.

This adult learning theory is especially fruitful when dealing with complicated challenges in an organizational context because it draws on a wide range of viewpoints and needed skills and taps into group intelligence.

Pros and cons of the method

Best suited for: 

1. Uncovering areas of learning need
2. Filling in gaps in organizational knowledge 
3. Team building 

Constructivism

Year: The beginning of the 20th century 

Authors: Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget 

Definition 

The constructivist theory in education, also known as constructivism, is one of the oldest and most prominent adult learning theories and principles. At its core, the theory asserts that individuals actively build knowledge through real-world experiences and social interactions while drawing on their prior knowledge. The two branches of the theory are cognitive constructivism associated with Jean Piaget and social constructivism developed by Lev Vygotsky.

How it works

When faced with a task, groups of learners are given the opportunity to figure it out on their own using their previous experience and problem-solving skills. When help is needed to overcome possible challenges, it is provided either by the more experienced members of the learner group or by expert facilitators. This approach encourages active participation in learning, giving trainees enough freedom to experiment while also motivating peer-to-peer interaction and knowledge transfer. Some examples of using this adult learning model in an organization include debates, brainstorming sessions, and role-playing activities.

Pros and cons of the social constructivism theory

This method is best suited for: 

1. Developing social and communication skills
2. Training employees in leadership positions
3. Improving employee performance through motivation
4. Team building

Social learning 

Year: 1977

Author: Albert Bandura 

Definition 

This education theory highlights the value of social interactions for adults’ learning and development. In this paradigm, learning occurs informally in social groups through observation, noticing, modeling, and imitation. Unlike most other adult training techniques, it doesn’t necessarily involve planning, goal-setting, and facilitation, although adjustments can be made to give this learning method more purpose.

How it works 

Social learning can happen spontaneously during social interactions in an academic, professional, corporate, or any other setting. It can be compared to playing soccer in a team with more experienced teammates: when you know the basic rules, you notice what others do to play better and imitate them, becoming a better player in the process. However, this approach may render exact outcomes difficult to measure. To avoid that, social learning can be introduced as a component of a broader and more structured educational program, offline or online, and/or combined with the collaborative learning approach. For example, learning management systems (LMSs) offer social learning as a feature that helps make self-directed learning more engaging.

Pros and cons of social learning

This method is best suited for: 

1. Teams and companies with an informal culture 
2. Communication skills development 
3. Fostering self-motivation and continuous learning

These were some of the most prominent adult learning theories and concepts that can be successfully used for creating corporate training materials. Here are some other popular theories and adult learning principles that are often mentioned in connection with teaching adults:

• Behaviorism. This adult learning theory is based on psychology and leverages the “reward and punishment” approach to encourage or discourage certain behaviors. In corporate training, it can take the form of awarding the best performers.
• Cognitivism. Closely connected with Vygotsky’s constructivism, this adult learning theory puts the abilities of the adult brain front and center and breaks down the complex cognitive process into individual components.
• Collaborative learning. This adult learning method is very similar to social learning in that it also leverages the power of social interactions to achieve a common goal. The collaborative learning approach is also similar to PBL, since it involves groups of learners who actively participate in the same project.

Now, let’s review some principal adult learning methods to bolster these concepts and achieve learning goals.

Best Adult Learning Methods to Boost Engagement 

Teaching adults new material isn’t enough; you need to pique their interest and get them involved in the process by designing engaging, interactive lessons. Teachers can help students become more actively involved in their learning process, have a more thorough comprehension of course material, and gain the confidence to succeed academically by using proven principles of adult learning. Here’s how you can achieve that:

Involve learners in planning their learning process

Include mature students in the early stages of the learning plan to give them more agency. Give them the freedom to decide what they want to learn, how fast they want to acquire new knowledge, and what kind of structure they want their lessons to follow. You can even give them a choice of training activities that are more appealing to them.

Make it similar to solving problems in the real world

Present lessons as challenges with real-world solutions. Give examples of problems or situations that call for research and analysis of the information presented. Mature students tap into their hidden critical thinking skills and problem-solving abilities through this method’s emphasis on active learning.

Encourage critical reflection

Stimulating adult learners to reflect on their experiences, draw conclusions, and analyze things from many angles is a great way to help them. As reflection encourages students to make connections between new concepts and their prior knowledge and ideas, it improves comprehension and enriches the learning process.

Allow autonomy

In the world of online/hybrid learning, it’s best to permit students to progress at their own speed while they investigate subjects that interest them. Greater engagement and motivation are fostered by autonomy, since they promote a sense of responsibility and independence. This approach aligns perfectly with how adults tend to learn and corresponds to the core principles of adult learning.

Appeal to the learners’ emotional side

Get adults to relate and empathize by sharing stories, anecdotes, and pertinent experiences. Students are more likely to pay attention and retain information when they have a personal investment in the material.

Create a story

While their learning styles are evidently different, in some ways, many adults learn in a manner that’s similar to children — for example, all ages respond well to storytelling. Make up stories or settings that students can’t help but get swept up in. Add information presented in chunks so students will remember and identify with it by using narrative approaches; this will captivate their interest and encourage them to think creatively.

Provide inspiring examples

Bring attention to relevant instances of accomplishment and success from your own or your learners’ everyday lives. Students can be inspired to learn through compelling stories and real-life case studies that show how their knowledge can be used to make a difference or find possible solutions to actual problems.

Stimulate with intrinsic rewards

People learn better when they want to learn. Raise students’ inner motivation by stressing how much they will benefit from and love learning things on their own. Every major learning theory for adults encourages acknowledging students’ efforts and successes while also giving them chances to learn by doing. More student engagement and persistence toward learning objectives can be achieved when learning itself provides a sense of intrinsic reward, which is particularly relevant to how adults learn.

Final Thoughts

Adult learning theories are crucial in the modern professional landscape, where employees need to constantly acquire and upgrade new skills and competencies. Learning is no longer just about memorizing facts. However, learning as adults is different from learning as children and therefore presents certain unique challenges. Fortunately, educators these days have an array of different theories and methods to aid them in creating relevant and engaging training programs specifically tailored to the learning needs of adults. Moreover, they can leverage different learning environments to make adult training more personalized, engaging, and effective. 

When it comes to specific tools, one way to work with the learning material most effectively is to leverage online learning platforms since they are cost-effective, convenient, and offer robust features to optimize training adults, including in fast-paced corporate settings. Thanks to them, instructional designers can use the main principles of adult learning theories as a basis for their overall learning architecture and create engaging online training programs for adults. Once you’ve chosen the best-fit learning approach, a robust authoring tool such as iSpring Suite can help you create a learning activity that develops every single new skill and job-essential knowledge. Ready to try? Download a free trial of iSpring Suite and explore all of its instructional design features now.

Useful Resources

Check out some more articles about adult learning theories on our blog:

• The 11 Best HR Tools for Streamlining Your Workflow
• What eLearning Is and How It Benefits Businesses
• The 70:20:10 Learning Model: How to Enhance It with Technology
• 5 Types of Employee Training and How to Get Improved Results with eLearning
• LMS Benefits for Recruiters, HR, Sales, and Commercial Directors
• The Ultimate Guide to Lecture Capture
• How to Build a Learning Culture